Azawad

Wikipedia:

Azawad (Tuareg: ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴷ, Azawd), also known as the Independent State of Azawad (Arabic: دولة أزواد المستقلة‎, Dawlat Azawād al-Mustaqillah; French: État indépendant de l’Azawad), is an unrecognised state since unilaterally declared by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) in 2012 after a Tuareg rebellion drove the Malian Army from the territory. Azawad, as claimed by the MNLA, comprises the Malian regions of Timbuktu, Kidal, Gao, as well as a part of Mopti region, encompassing about 60 percent of Mali's claimed total land area. Azawad borders Burkina Faso to the south, Mauritania to the west and northwest, Algeria to the north and northeast, and Niger to the east and southeast, with undisputed Mali to its southwest. It straddles a portion of the Sahara and the Sahelian zone. Gao is its largest city and the temporary capital, while Timbuktu is the second largest city, and intended to be the permanent capital.

On 6 April 2012, in a statement posted to its website, the MNLA declared "irrevocably" the independence of Azawad from Mali. In Gao on the same day, Bilal Ag Acherif, the secretary-general of the movement, signed the Azawadi Declaration of Independence, which also declared the MNLA as the interim administrators of Azawad until a "national authority" is formed. The proclamation has yet to be recognised by a foreign entity, and even the MNLA's claim to have de facto control of the Azawad region is disputed. The Economic Community of West African States, which refused to recognise Azawad and called the declaration of its independence "null and void", has said it may send troops into the disputed region in support of the Malian claim. On 26 May, the MNLA and its former co-belligerent Ansar Dine announced a pact in which they would merge to form an Islamist state, renamed the Islamic Republic of Azawad.

Etymology

According to Robert Brown, Azawad is an Arabic corruption of the Berber word "Azawagh", a dry river basin that covers western Niger, northeastern Mali, and southern Algeria. The name translates to "land of transhumance".

History

Gao, Mali and Songhai empires

The Gao Empire owes its name to the town of Gao. In the ninth century CE, it was considered to be the most powerful West African kingdom.

In the early 14th century, the southern part of the region came under the control of the Mali Empire, including the peaceful annexation of Timbuktu by King Musa I in 1324, as he returned from his famous pilgrimage to Mecca.

With the power of the Mali Empire waning in the first half of the 15th century, the area around Timbuktu became relatively autonomous, although Maghsharan Tuareg had a dominant position. Thirty years later however, the rising Songhay Empire expanded in Gao, absorbing Timbuktu in 1468 or 1469 and much of the surrounding area. The city was led, consecutively, by Sunni Ali Ber (1468–1492), Sunni Baru (1492–1493) and Askia Mohammad I (1493–1528). Although Sunni Ali Ber was in severe conflict with Timbuktu after its conquest, Askia Mohammad I created a golden age for both the Songhay Empire and Timbuktu through an efficient central and regional administration and allowed sufficient leeway for the city's commercial centers to flourish. With Gao the capital of the empire, Timbuktu enjoyed a relatively autonomous position. Merchants from Ghadames, Awjilah, and numerous other cities of North Africa gathered there to buy gold and slaves in exchange for the Saharan salt of Taghaza and for North African cloth and horses. Leadership of the Empire stayed in the Askia dynasty until 1591, when internal fights weakened the dynasty's grip.

Moroccan expedition

Following the Battle of Tondibi in a village just north of Gao, the city was captured on 30 May 1591 by an expedition of 4,000 Andalusian Moriscos, 500 mercenaries and 2,500 auxiliaries, including slaves, dubbed the Arma. They were sent by the Saadi ruler of Morocco, Ahmad I al-Mansur, and were led by Morisco General Judar Pasha in search of gold mines. Pasha was born into a family of Spanish Muslims in Morocco, banished by the Spanish Crown following the failed Alpujarras uprising of 1568–71. The sacking of Gao marked the effective end of the Songhai as a regional power and its economic and intellectual decline, as increasing trans-atlantic trade routes – transporting African slaves, including leaders and scholars of Timbuktu – marginalised Gao and Timbuktu's role as trade and scholarly centers. The consequence of the Moroccan expedition was the formation of the Pashalik of Timbuktu. While initially controlling the Morocco – Timbuktu trade routes, Morocco soon cut its ties with the Arma and the grip of the numerous subsequent pashas on Timbuktu began losing its strength. By 1630, the colony was independent and had been indigenised through intermarriage and local alliances. Songhay never regained control and smaller taifa kingdoms were created. Tuareg temporarily took over control in 1737 and the remainder of the 18th century saw various Tuareg tribes, Bambara and Kounta briefly occupy or besiege the city. During this period, the influence of the Pashas, who by then had mixed with the Songhay through intermarriage, never completely disappeared.

The Massina Empire took control of Timbuktu in 1826, holding it until 1865, when they were driven away by El Hadj Umar Tall's Toucouleur Empire. Sources conflict on who was in control when the French arrived: Elias N. Saad in 1983 suggests the Soninke Wangara, a 1924 article in the Journal of the Royal African Society mentions the Tuareg, while Africanist John Hunwick does not determine one ruler, but notes several states competing for power 'in a shadowy way' until 1893.

Under French rule

After European powers formalized the scramble for Africa in the Berlin Conference, land between the 14th meridian and Miltou, South-West Chad, became French territory, bounded in the south by a line running from Say, Niger to Baroua. Although the Azawad region was now French in name, the principle of effectivity required France to actually hold power in those areas assigned, e.g. by signing agreements with local chiefs, setting up a government and making use of the area economically, before the claim would be definitive. On 15 December 1893, Timbuktu, by then long past its prime, was annexed by a small group of French soldiers, led by Lieutenant Gaston Boiteux. The region became part of French Sudan (Soudan Français), a colony of France. The colony was reorganised and the name changed several times during the French colonial period. In 1899 the French Sudan was subdivided and the Azawad became part of Upper Senegal and Middle Niger (Haut-Sénégal et Moyen Niger). In 1902 the name became Senegambia and Niger (Sénégambie et Niger) and in 1904 this was changed again to Upper Senegal and Niger (Haut-Sénégal et Niger). This name was used until 1920 when it became French Sudan again.

Under Malian rule

French Sudan became the autonomous state of Mali within the French Community in 1958, and Mali became independent from France in 1960. The area saw four major Tuareg rebellions against Malian rule: the First Tuareg Rebellion (1962–64), the rebellion of 1990–1995, the rebellion of 2007–2009, and a 2012 rebellion by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) and Ancar Dine.

In the early twenty-first century, the region became notorious for banditry and drug smuggling. The area has been reported to contain a great deal of potential mineral wealth, including petroleum and uranium.

On 17 January 2012, the MNLA announced the start of an insurrection in Azawad against the government of Mali, declaring that it "will continue so long as Bamako does not recognise this territory as a separate entity".

In March 2012, the MNLA and Ancar Dine took control of the regional capitals of Kidal and Gao along with their military bases. On 1 April, Timbuktu was captured. After the seizure of Timbuktu on 1 April, the MNLA gained effective control of most of the territory they claim for an independent Azawad. In a statement released on the occasion, the MNLA invited all Azawadis abroad to return home and join in constructing institutions in the new state.

Unilaterally declared independence

The MNLA declared Azawad an independent state on 6 April 2012 and pledged to draft a constitution establishing it as a democracy. Their statement also acknowledged the United Nations charter and said the new state would uphold its principles.

In an interview with France 24, an MNLA spokesman declared the independence of Azawad:

In the same interview, Assarid also promised that Azawad will "respect all the colonial frontiers that separate Azawad from its neighbours" and insisted that Azawad's declaration of independence has "some international legality".

No foreign entity has yet recognized Azawad. The MNLA's declaration was immediately rejected by the African Union, who declared it "null and no value whatsoever". The French Foreign Ministry said it would not recognise the unilateral partition of Mali, but it called for negotiations between Bamako and Gao to address "the demands of the northern Tuareg population [which] are old and for too long had not received adequate and necessary responses". The United States also rejected the declaration of independence.

The MNLA is estimated to have up to 3,000 soldiers. ECOWAS declared Azawad "null and void", and said that Mali is "one and [an] indivisible entity". The ECOWAS has said that it would use force, if necessary, to put down the rebellion. The French government indicated it could provide logistical support.

Geography

The local climate is desert or semi-desert. Reuters wrote of the terrain: "Much of the land is the Sahara desert at its most inhospitable: rock, sand dunes and dust scored by shifting tracks." Some definitions of Azawad also include parts of northern Niger and southern Algeria, adjacent areas to the south and the north though in its declaration of independence, the MNLA did not advance territorial claims on those areas.

Traditionally, Azawad has referred to the sandplains north of Timbuktu. In geological terms, it is a mosaic of river, swamp, lake, and wind-borne deposits, while aeolian processes have proven the most imprinting.

About 6500 BC, Azawad was a 90,000 square kilometres marshy and lake basin. The area of today's Timbuktu was probably permanently flooded. In the deeper parts of Azawad, there were large lakes, partly recharged by rainfall, partly by exposed groundwater. Seasonal lakes and creeks were fed by overflow of the Niger river. The annual Niger flood was diffused throughout the Azawad by a network of palaeochannels spread out over an area of 180 by 130 kilometres. The most important of these paleochannels is the Wadi el-Ahmar, which is 1 200 metres wide at its southern end, at the Niger bend, and winds 70 to 100 kilometres northward. These long interdunal indentations that are framed by Pleistocene longitudinal dunes, charactise the present landscape.

Politics

The MNLA in its declaration of independence announced the first political institutions of the state of Azawad. It included:

As part of Mali, Azawad did not have a central government, and although the MNLA claimed responsibility for managing the country "until the appointment of a national authority" in their declaration of independence, it has acknowledged the presence of rival armed groups, including Islamist fighters under Ansar Dine, the Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa, and Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, in Azawad. The MNLA has yet to establish a formal government, though it has pledged to draft a constitution establishing Azawad as a democracy. The main government building is called the Palace of Azawad by the MNLA. It is a heavily guarded building in central Gao that served as the office of the Gao Region's governor prior to the rebellion.

The military wing of Ansar Dine rejected the MNLA's declaration of independence hours after it was issued. Ansar Dine has vowed to establish Islamic sharia law over all of Mali. At a conference, the Azawadis voiced their disapproval of radical Islamic groups, and asked all foreign fighters to disarm and leave the country.

According to a Chatham House Africa expert, Mali is not to be considered "definitively partitioned". The peoples that constitute a major share of the population of northern Mali, like Songhai and Fulani, would consider themselves to be Malian and have no interest in a separate Tuareg-dominated state. On the day of the declaration of independence, about 200 Malian northerners staged a rally in Bamako, declaring their rejection of the partition and their willingness to fight to drive out the rebels. One day later, a new rally against separatism was joined by 2000 protesters.

On 8 April 2012, the National Liberation Front of Azawad (FLNA), a predominantly Arab armed group from Timbuktu, led by a parliamentarian and a defected Malian lieutenant-colonel, announced its formation. They were established to defend Timbuktu against the MNLA advance and reject to be ruled "by a Tuareg from Kidal".

On 26 May, after three weeks of negociations, the MNLA and Ansar Dine merged their forces, creating the National Army of Azawad and a Transitional Council.

Administrative divisions

Azawad, as proclaimed by the MNLA, includes the Malian regions of Gao, Timbuktu, Kidal, and the northeast half of Mopti; until 1991, when the new Kidal Region was created, it formed the northern portion of Gao Region. As such, it includes the important cities of Timbuktu, Gao and Kidal.

Demographics

Northern Mali has a population density of 1.5 people per square kilometre. The Malian regions that are claimed by Azawad are listed hereafter (apart from the portion of Mopti Region claimed and occupied by the MNLA). The population figures are from the 2009 census of Mali, taken before Azawadi independence was proclaimed. Since the start of the Tuareg rebellion in January 2012, probably 250,000 former inhabitants have fled from the territory.

Ethnic groups

The area was traditionally inhabited by the settled Songhay, nomadic Tuareg people, Moors, and Fulas (Fula: Fulɓe; French: Peul), and Bambara The ethnic composition of the regions in 1950 (at that time, Kidal Region was a part of Gao Region) is shown in the diagrams to the left.

Languages

The languages of Azawad include Tamashek, Arabic, Fulfulde and Songhay and Bambara.

Religion

Most are Muslims, of the Sunni or Sufi orientations. At least 90 percent of the 300 Christians who formerly lived in Timbuktu have fled to the South since the rebels captured the town on 2 April 2012.

Humanitarian situation

The people living in the central and northern Sahelian and Sahelo-Saharan areas of Mali are the country's poorest, according to an International Fund for Agricultural Development report. Most of them are pastoralists and farmers practicing subsistence agriculture on dry land with poor and increasingly degraded soils. The northern part of Mali suffers from a critical shortage of food and lack of health care. Starvation has prompted about 200,000 inhabitants to leave the region.

Bibliography